Original Article
Bahareh Nilforoshan; Bakhtiar Sadjadi; Fariba Parvizi; Farid Parvaneh
Abstract
Introduction: Reading contemporary fiction through diverse disciplines appears to be a substantial part of narrative studies in particular and literature in general providing a tenable framework of interdisciplinary discourses of knowledge to study and explore fiction. Caryl Phillips’s The Nature ...
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Introduction: Reading contemporary fiction through diverse disciplines appears to be a substantial part of narrative studies in particular and literature in general providing a tenable framework of interdisciplinary discourses of knowledge to study and explore fiction. Caryl Phillips’s The Nature of Blood embraces a labyrinth of narratives, the Holocaust as its ultimate point of recollection. Phillips, by narrating the horrific memories of a camp survivor, delves into the dark memories of racism and brings it to its old days, as far as Othello’s in Venice. The present study explores this dark legacy through a relatively new approach to literature using socio-cultural anthropological concepts. In doing so, the present paper scrutinized The Nature of Blood through the concepts of territorial stigma, ghetto, and punitive containment in order to delineate the true and indisputable role of fiction in other social sciences, emphasizing the interdisciplinary nature of literature and novel, in particular. Focusing on the conception of ghetto as a stigmatized territory narrated by Eva and Othello, the two major narrators in the novel, the article finds it as an available and costless strategy of punitive containment practiced through the course of history and represented in The Nature of Blood.Background of Study: Wacquant elucidates his ideas on the nexus of marginality, ethnicity, and penalty. However, tenets of territorial stigmatization and ghettoization would cover more nationalities and disciplinary boundaries. He builds his notions of ghetto on a comparison of some canonical cases and concludes that ghetto is an institutional form that would lead to territorial and social stigmatization: “the ghetto is an institutional form, a social-organizational device that employs space to fulfill two conflictive functions: economic extraction and social ostracization” (Urban Outcasts, 3). He develops the concept of territorial stigmatization according to this comparative approach to social theory and applies his findings about neighborhood taint on both sides of the Atlantic. Moreover, he has contributed to urban studies by his notion of advanced marginality. Methodology: This article is a library-based research and uses various sources both in interdisciplinary discourses and contemporary fiction. Ghetto is pictured as punitive containment strategy to push the members of periphery to territories of stigma and deprive them of their collective identity and sense of belonging. Conclusion: The present paper explores The Nature of Blood as an instance of the author’s multi-layered narration in a versatile scope of time, place and history that makes it an appropriate microcosm to apply Wacquant’s conception of territorial stigma, ghetto, and punitive containment. It is concluded that territorial stigma, along with other labels relegating the repressed to the margins of a society, is a recurrent and dynamic threat to the integrity of the underclass and the precariat making it difficult to grasp to any kind of collective action and thus, reflecting the future lives and struggles of the migrants with diverse ethno-racial and religious backgrounds, especially from the Middle East, who were trying to find refuge in Europe after the wake of ISIS. Moreover, ghetto, scrutinized by Wacquant in its modern sense, finds its roots in Renaissance Europe in Phillips’ fiction, proving the bitter fact that the ghetto is the other side of the prison aiming at the exclusionary closure of the outcasts of the society and continued almost unchanged to the modern urban metropolis. The punitive containment during the course of history proved to be a practical and priceless strategy to keep the underclass precariat and the social outcasts at bay behind the bars of the prison, sometimes embodied in the form of the ghetto and has always been reflected in literature due to its potential socio-cultural and anthropological overtones.
Original Article
Bahare Aarabi; Negar Sharif
Abstract
Introduction: The industrial development and rapid economic growth of the United States in the mid-twentieth century pushed the concept of nature to the margins. It is presumed that the literary pieces made during this period ignored nature to the advantage of the multilateral development of the country. ...
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Introduction: The industrial development and rapid economic growth of the United States in the mid-twentieth century pushed the concept of nature to the margins. It is presumed that the literary pieces made during this period ignored nature to the advantage of the multilateral development of the country. However, some writers consciously or unconsciously opposed this mainstream and encouraged ecological awareness. This paper seeks to study Denise Levertov’s “A Tree Telling of Orpheus”—published in 1968—in the light of eco-phenomenology to disclose Levertov’s eco-consciousness embedded in her holistic and non-hierarchical attitude toward life, against her days' backdrop of the separation paradigm. Levertov’s early works mainly celebrate nature, but her later works are primarily distinguished as social and political. This research focuses on Merleau-Ponty’s concept of ‘chiasm’ to reveal the reciprocally embodied participation between Orpheus and his natural surroundings, hidden in a shadow cast by political and spiritual analyses of this text.Background of Study: Levertov’s poetry has been studied within the framework of various literary theories, mainly Marxism and feminism. The present study gains significance as it brings the interdisciplinary approach of eco-phenomenology to practical analysis of the human-nature relationship in “A Tree Telling of Orpheus.” In the late 1960s, the Vietnam War became the US government's top priority; most literary figures of this era addressed this issue in their works. Moreover, most of the critical studies have also focused on the political aspects of these pieces, ignoring their other elements. This poem, written in 1968—while the Vietnam War was still raging—has been no exception. In her paper “A Poetic Re-Telling of the Orphic Myth: A Political Study of Denise Levertov’s ‘A Tree Telling of Orpheus’,” Rana Jabir Obed holds that like Orphic music, the Vietnam War brought “appreciation and political awareness” to the youth (Obed 4). Other aspects of this work have also been noticed by critics. In “The Hasidic Context of Nature and Music in Denise Levertov’s Relearning the Alphabet,” Estra Gancarz-Jurek stated that Levertov’s concerns for the environment and music were derived from her Hasidic religion. What the present research intends to add to the existing corpus is to study the ecological aspect of this poetry from a different angle, ‘eco-phenomenology’, to disclose an awareness of a broader phenomenological world. Methodology: The present research, as a qualitative and a descriptive one, embarks on library work and context analysis. The Main theoretical premise of this study is the eco-phenomenological concept of ‘chiasm’ put forth by Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961). 'Eco-phenomenology,' as the point where philosophy and ecology meet, deals with environmental issues from a phenomenological viewpoint. Chiasm, “the reciprocal participation—between one’s own flesh and the encompassing flesh of the world” (Abram 81), dismantles the Cartesian mind/body dualism and its subsequent nature/culture distinction to open the body to the world. Emphasizing the notion of ‘embodiment,’ this study discloses the chiasmatic moments when nature and culture are intertwined. Here, the emphasis is placed on the music’s role in creating these holistic experiences.Conclusion: This research rejected the transcendental subject in favor of the ‘body-subject’ by emphasizing the superiority of the body in the process of perception to reveal the mutually embodied participation between Orpheus and nature. Using literary devices like ‘anthropomorphism,’ ‘chremamorphism,’ ‘synesthesia,’ and ‘onomatopoeia,’ the boundary between humans and nature was blurred. Thus, a Cartesian, culture-nature outlook faded into a holistic one, and a corporeally blurred amalgam of Orpheus and the surrounding nature rose to the surface. Here, the emphasis was placed on music’s role in bringing these holistic experiences. It should be mentioned that the eco-phenomenological study of literary works can encourage a holistic attitude, preventing the destruction of the environment.
Original Article
Seyedeh Yasaman Ghodsi; Narges Montakhabi; Razieh Eslamieh
Abstract
AbstractIntroductionAmong many others, the aftermath of the Cold War generated two poets whose works of art significantly impacted their traumatized audiences. Forché and Joudah are among those whose lives were altered following their visit to war zones. The former is known as an established, ...
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AbstractIntroductionAmong many others, the aftermath of the Cold War generated two poets whose works of art significantly impacted their traumatized audiences. Forché and Joudah are among those whose lives were altered following their visit to war zones. The former is known as an established, and the other as a doctor who is not loaded with literary studies, will be considered a non-established one. As a poet, editor, and human rights advocate, Forché is seriously concerned with traumas that ordinary people face in tragic events such as war, genocide, social and political upheavals, as well as any other similar incidents that would devastate them emotionally and psychologically. BackgroundThe poet-journalist Forché introduced a self-created term called ‘poetry of witness,’ she relates it to the poets and non-poets globally similar to herself who endured a catastrophic event and composed regarding that event. She gathered a collection of 144 poets and published the book Against Forgetting (1993).There is no record of Fady Joudah’s education in literature, yet his poems and translations were rewarded. Moreover, a poet, Baker, interviewed Joudah in his Kenyon Review Journal (2009). Baker discusses Joudah’s poetry style and states, "Joudah’s poetry is rich with the influences and styles of American and Arabic poetry. It can be personal and image-driven, by turns, as well as discursive and social” (69).MethodologyTo go through the ‘Poetry of Witness’ composed by the two traumatized artists, a blend of Laub and LaCapra’s theories has been applied to their poems; although mastered in distinct majors, psychology and historicism, respectively, Laub and LaCapra are both seriously concerned with trauma. In Bearing Witness(1991), Laub divides the process of witnessing into three classes, the “second-level,” referring to the population of people including journalists and reporters who have gathered information.As pinpointed by Laub, since both Forché and Joudah have been first-world witnesses who encountered traumas in a foreign, third-world country, they are categorized as ‘second-level witnesses.’ To come to terms with their trauma, they both initially resolved to poetry; studying their composures would illuminate their steps toward closure and, in LaCapra’s words, whether they have ‘acted out’ or ‘worked through’ their trauma. By acting out, he refers to a type of mourning for trauma, he states in his article “Trauma, Absence, Loss” (1999) that “Mourning involves a different inflection of performativity: a relation to the past that involves recognizing its difference from the present-simultaneously remembering and taking leave of or actively forgetting it” (716).The next step in LaCapra’s trauma treatment is “working-through.” the critic in “Trauma, Absence, Loss” (1999) states that “a basis of the desirable practice is to create conditions in which working-through, while never fully transcending the force of acting-out and the repetition compulsion, may nonetheless counteract or at least mitigate it in order to generate different possibilities” (718). Respectively, an amalgamation of these concepts will be administered to the chosen poems desiring to achieve the “trauma treatment” goal through poetry.ConclusionThis article aimed to disclose that a person, whether classified as established or not, would successfully ‘work through’ their trauma via reading and writing poetry. This case was considerably under suspicion when both poets did not only suffice to compose, they moved forward by editing books and gathering more than a hundred poets sharing the same pain in the matter of Forché and Joudah, as a physician, continued his medical path by helping people in need, especially in more underprivileged areas. It could be concluded that in this way, their poetry has assisted them in finding their mission of helping themselves and others physically and emotionally to overcome their trauma.
Original Article
Narjes Khodaee
Abstract
Introduction: During the 1990s, German literature saw an influx of writers who had lived through the East German regime. These authors reflected the events that led up to the Berlin Wall’s fall and Germany’s reunification. Wolfgang Hilbig’s novel, “I”, is a prominent example ...
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Introduction: During the 1990s, German literature saw an influx of writers who had lived through the East German regime. These authors reflected the events that led up to the Berlin Wall’s fall and Germany’s reunification. Wolfgang Hilbig’s novel, “I”, is a prominent example of these works, called “turning literature”. This fiction depicts the absurdities of life under a fading ideology and the alienation of power institutions from social developments.The present article first examines historical context and the role of literature in East Germany to provide a deeper understanding of the themes and plot of the novel “I”. Then, it analyzes the concept of “simulacra”, which refers to the disconnection of signs from reality in modern social relations according to French sociologist Jean Baudrillard’s theories. The article further criticizes Hilbig’s literary interpretation of this concept and the various manifestations of “simulacra” in the narrative layers of “I”.Background of the Study: The novel “I” was published in 1993 and has since been translated into multiple languages, receiving praise from literary circles. However, it has yet to be researched in the Persian language. German-speaking critics have referenced Wolfgang Hilbig’s works while critiquing contemporary German literature. The present article cites some of those critiques. One significant source is a collection of articles titled “Two Separate Areas of Literature. German Literature of the 1990s in the East and the West” (2000) published in the literary journal Text and Criticism, which includes a section dedicated to “I”. Moreover, Helmut Luger conducted a detailed study in 2010, focusing on themes such as “alienation, loss of reality, and simulation” in Hilbig’s novels and analyzing their narrative structure and linguistic characteristics.Methodology: The novel “I”, which Wolfgang Hilbig started writing before the fall of the Berlin Wall, presents various interpretations of the concept of “simulacra” and its representations in the discourse of power. This concept in the semiotic debates of the 1980s indicated the remoteness of signs from their origin. However, philosophers and thinkers like Jean Baudrillard and Gilles Deleuze have different interpretations of this concept. The present article reviews and evaluates the opinions of various theorists on the concept of “simulacra”. It assesses which philosophical and sociological theories align with the works of Hilbig and also examines how applying this concept to the literary text expands its meaning beyond the frameworks of these theorists.Conclusion: In this article, we reviewed the history and thematic characteristics of “turning literature” and examined one of the essential elements of the novel, i.e., “simulacra”. We found that this concept, which Jean Baudrillard presented to represent modern social relations in the digital age, has a different meaning in Wolfgang Hilbig’s works. Simulacra in “I” is manifested in the context of a pervasive disciplinary system or a “hyperreality” whose ultimate goal is to consolidate power relations. This concept primarily refers to the simulation of ideas and actions resulting from imposing ideological illusions on society. These ideas and actions have become outdated and ineffective models on the verge of the collapse of Eastern Bloc systems.Although Baudrillard and Hilbig consider different social contexts, convergences can also be observed in their interpretations of the concept of “simulacra”. Both philosophers and writers, whether in the field of theorizing or in the scope of the literary text, aim to critique stagnant and fragmented social relations that are far away from reality and reproduce previous patterns in an automated way.
Original Article
Ali Mohammad Mohammadi; Morteza Abdoli
Abstract
Introduction: Comparative discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics focusing on comparative study of languages, cultures, and discourses in terms of similar linguistic and metalinguistic variables in the construction and monitoring of discourse (Linha, 2022). Monitoring discourse is the analysis ...
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Introduction: Comparative discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics focusing on comparative study of languages, cultures, and discourses in terms of similar linguistic and metalinguistic variables in the construction and monitoring of discourse (Linha, 2022). Monitoring discourse is the analysis of strategies in planning, distribution, production, and utilization of language to create coherence and relevance between units of discourse by the creative, innovative, and flexible way of application of discourse markers (DMs) in human communication (Mohammadi and Dehghan, 2021). This explorative, descriptive, and qualitative study analyzed coherence relations in “Modire Madreseh” by Jalal Aleahmad and “The Old Man and The Sea by Hemingway. Background: DMs are the most frequent, complex, and creative meta-linguistic elements in human communication (Sayadkooh and Reisi, 2017). Their utilization in discourse is not random and they perform different cultural social and pragmatic functions facilitating human communication (Fraser, 2006). Theoretically, DMs are defined and analyzed from two perspectives: relevance theory by Sperber and Wilson (1995) and coherence theory by Glansberg (2018). And the assumptions include: all text possess coherence, there are different types of coherence relations in texts, and these coherence relations should be discovered by the people in discourse. Approaching DMs functionally, Redeker (2006) believes that DMs’ main function is establishing relationship between units of discourse. From a semantic perspective, Fraser (2006) analyzed DMs at sentence level and believes that they establish the relationship between messages in the former, present, and latter sentences. Aijmer (2013) concludes that DMs do not possess fixed lexical functions and their functions are contexts-dependent and context-sensitive resulting in different functions in discourse. Empirically, DMs are investigated in different languages skills such as writing, speaking, listening and translation by different investigators.Methodology: This exploratory, descriptive, and qualitative study analyze coherence relations in two Persian and English literary works. Theoretically the study was supported by coherence theory in discourse analysis and the following analysis models established within this theoretical perspective: DMs inventory developed by Fraser (2006) and DMs functional inventory by Brinton (1996). Coherence theory centers around the appropriacy of concepts in terms of their relationship in the context of discourse. The corpus consisted of the following two Persian and English novels: “Modire Madreseh” by Jalal Aleahmad and “The Old Man and The Sea by Hemingway and these novels where selected due to the similar literary genre, similar readability levels, and close date of publication in two literary discourses. Moreover, to verify the reliability of the findings 20% the data were given to two raters to verify the researchers’ identification and classification of DMs and their functions. Conclusion: The results of the quantitative analysis revealed that the construction of coherence relations between units of discourse was substantiated based on a four plane framework established by four groups of inferential, elaborative, contrastive, and temporal DMs in monitoring discourse. And the most frequent DMs were elaborative DMs. The qualitative analysis of the pragmatic functions of DMs applied in these literary works resulted in the following seven plane spectrum of functions for DMs: information indication, temporality, topic switch, opening markers, closing markers, turn exchange, and reform markers. This creative, flexible, and innovative approach in the construction and interpretation of discourse is substantiated through the application of pragmaticalization. So, new, creative, and context sensitive inferences about functions are substantiated for DMs and they are always being renewed, modified, and innovated substantially. Different implications in different research and educational perspectives about teaching literature, language, and different languages skills are suggested and discussed.
Original Article
Hassan Zokhtareh
Abstract
Introduction: This article regards Antoine Compagnon as the embodiment of a movement that imbues literature with utility in the contemporary context. In his inaugural lecture, titled "What is Literature for?" delivered at the esteemed Collège de France, Compagnon argues that the era of inquiries ...
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Introduction: This article regards Antoine Compagnon as the embodiment of a movement that imbues literature with utility in the contemporary context. In his inaugural lecture, titled "What is Literature for?" delivered at the esteemed Collège de France, Compagnon argues that the era of inquiries such as "What is literature?" has faded, giving way to a more essential question: "Why and how should we approach literature?". The transition from an essentialist approach to a pragmatic one serves as evidence of the current crisis afflicting literature and literary studies in universities, resulting in a multitude of works published in France since the year 2005. These writings can be grouped into two categories: on one hand, the essays that support the devaluation, decline, or even death of literature, and on the other hand, those who believe in the dynamism and rebirth of contemporary literature, seeking to enumerate its functions and utilitiesBackground of study: This study is part of our ongoing postdoctoral research conducted in 2021 at the Université Lumière Lyon 2, which addresses the crisis of contemporary literature and has led to the writing of several articles. The first article, titled "Investigating Declinism in Contemporary French Literature" (2021), examines the threats faced by contemporary literature in terms of economic, political, cultural, and technological aspects. The second article, co-written with Martine Boyer-Weinmann and titled "A Study of Literary Success in the Contemporary Media Age Case Study: She and He by Marc Levy" (2022), aims to understand the connections between contemporary popular literature and other forms of expression, particularly digital media. We have also published a book review and an article in Persian on Alexandre Gefen's work, "The Idea of Literature. From Art for Art’s Sake to Writings That Intervene" (2021), adopting an analytical and critical approach. This book review was published in the French journal Questions de communication (2021). The Persian article, titled "A Critique on the Book The Idea of Literature. From ‘Art for Art’s Sake’ to Writings That Intervene" (2021), provides a detailed presentation of Gefen's theoretical essay, emphasizing his expanded vision of literature. Furthermore, we have written two Persian reviews, published in 2018, on the following works: "Literature at risk" (2007) by Todorov and "The Farewell to Literature" (2005) by William Marx. To our knowledge, no comparative study has been conducted in France or Iran on the notion of useful literature in the essays published in France regarding the decline or functions of contemporary French literature. This has precisely motivated us to write the present article.Methodology: This article, based on an analytical and comparative approach, aims to present Compagnon's essay, highlighting in particular the concept of useful literature that emerges from it. Additionally, it aims to compare Compagnon's ideas with other contemporary writings, including those of Gefen, Citton, Maingueneau, Schaffer, Meizoz, and Marx. Conclusion: This critical analysis sheds light on the fact that, despite its alluring title, Compagnon's work falls short of fulfilling its aims. Despite his belief in literature as discourse, it nonetheless presents a limited understanding of literature on various levels.
Original Article
Kaveh Bahrami Sobhani
Abstract
IntroductionThe German language has four grammatical cases: Nominative (Nominativ)– subject, Accusative (Akkusativ)– direct object, Dative (Dativ)– indirect object, and Genitive (Genitiv)– possessive. Grammatical case is mostly responsible for determining the syntactic-semantic ...
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IntroductionThe German language has four grammatical cases: Nominative (Nominativ)– subject, Accusative (Akkusativ)– direct object, Dative (Dativ)– indirect object, and Genitive (Genitiv)– possessive. Grammatical case is mostly responsible for determining the syntactic-semantic relations in the sentence. In languages that have a relatively free sequence of words, case can pave the way to recognize grammatical relations and understand semantic relationships. Grammatical case is formed in two ways: 1. case government/ rection, and 2. case congruence. Case government/ rection is the syntactic relationship between two linguistic phrases. That is to say that the first linguistic element determines the grammatical features of the second linguistic element that is dependent on it. In the German language, four lexical categories determine grammatical case: verb, preposition, adjective and noun. In the second type of grammatical case assignment, the noun phrase takes the grammatical case of another noun phrase without being dependent on it. Case congruence is observed in predictive nominal phrases, conjunctive phrases and apposition. There exists, however, yet another grammatical case which is called "free case". The complications related to free case, which will be discussed in the present paper, are due to the fact that the reason for its appearance in the sentence is not clear, and it is often considered by language learners as a direct object. In this research, in addition to introducing free case and its types, the ways of distinguishing this type of grammatical case from the grammatical case that are granted through lexical elements in the sentence are shown. It is sought to investigate the extent to which language learners are familiar with free case and whether they can distinguish the syntactic functions formed through free case from those dependent on the verb of the sentence. It is hypothesized that lack of knowledge about free case would make language learners face problems in recognizing syntactic functions. Therefore, in the experimental phase of this study, two groups of language learners were asked to participate in a related test. Background of StudyIn a book titled "Grammatical Case" Sahel, (2018) has discussed in detail the various dimensions of case. In this book, in addition to discussing topics such as case government, case congruence, and the relationship between semantic roles and grammatical case, the writer also discusses how grammatical case is learned by children. Czepluch (1996) compared grammatical case in German and English languages. On the other hand, Dürscheid (1999) tried to provide a comprehensive definition and description of grammatical case from the point of view of syntax and meaning. Also, Einsenbeiß (1994) addressed the relationship between grammatical case and word sequence in the German language and examined the learning of these issues in the first language. Marks (2014) discussed the issue of teaching grammar to immigrant students and the difficulties faced by language teachers. Also, Vater (2006) referred to the issue of features of the grammatical case in the construction of apposition, and, in 2015, in another study, examined the issue of changes and fluctuations in the grammatical case in contemporary German. In her doctoral thesis, Egorova (2006) discussed the issue of grammatical case in German language, examining the adverbial role of direct and indirect objects in nominal groups and their corresponding grammatical cases. MethodologyWith the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present article, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was investigated through data collection. To this end, 28 undergraduate students in the field of German language and literature at Shahid Beheshti University were invited to participate in the test. The students were divided into two groups of fourteen participants. The experimental group consisted of 14 students (nine female and five male students in the age range of 19 to 30 years). The experimental group participants who were at the end of their fifth semester participated in a 90-minute face-to-face session in the course "Advanced German Linguistics" and learned about "Free Case in German Language". The control group also included 14 students (ten female and four male students in the age range of 18 to 26 years). The students in the control group, who were at the end of their third semester when they participated in the test, had only learned about the structure of the German language in the courses "Grammatical Analysis" and "Basics of Linguistics". After the training of the experimental group, both groups participated in the test which consisted of three sections. In the first section of the test, six sentences were presented and the participants were asked to identify the direct object of the verb. In the second part, five sentences were presented and the participants were asked to determine the indirect object of the verb. In the third and final part of the test, seven sentences were presented to the participants and they were asked to determine the object related to the verb of the sentence. In the end, the results obtained from both groups in all three sections were analyzed.ConclusionIn the present study, free grammatical case in German language was discussed. Case government and case congruence were also introduced through various examples. It was shown in what cases the free grammatical case of the direct object, which takes the grammatical role of the adverb, is manifested. Also, the types of grammatical case of the free indirect object were delved into. Next, in addition to introducing the grammatical case of the indirect object, it was also pointed out that this grammatical case shares a common feature with the grammatical case of the direct object, in which both of them play the grammatical role of the adverb in the sentence. Next, with the aim of applying this research, the main part of the present study, which is focused on the distinction between different grammatical cases in the German language, was examined in a data-oriented way. To this end, examples of all three grammatical Oblique case were given to the experimental and control groups. The results revealed that in all cases, the number of correct answers by the participants of the experimental group who were familiar with the types of free grammatical cases was more compared to the control group. It was also found that familiarizing language learners with the free grammatical case will help them distinguish between the grammatical functions of adverbs and the grammatical functions of verbs.
Original Article
Mitra Moradi; Ali Abbassi
Abstract
IntroductionGreimas, as the most famous theoretician of "narrative semantics", believes that the structure of a narrative, like the structure of a sentence, has its own grammar. By presenting some models such as action pattern, narrative program, semantic square, etc., he tries to structure the relationships ...
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IntroductionGreimas, as the most famous theoretician of "narrative semantics", believes that the structure of a narrative, like the structure of a sentence, has its own grammar. By presenting some models such as action pattern, narrative program, semantic square, etc., he tries to structure the relationships between the meaningful signs of a texte, so that we can understand the internal structures of the meaning of the text by transitioning from the surface structure to the deep structure. The narrativity is the main organizing principle of any discourse. Narrative semiotics aims to search for deep, inherent and stable structures in discourses that can be formally manifested at the surface of texts. In this research, by referring to Greimas's narrative semiotics and his famous models, we intend to examine the narrativity in the novel "If Only It Were True" by Marc Levy. Unlike other literary criticism approaches that search for meaning outside the text, the semiotic approach searches for the mechanism of meaning formation in the text itself and in the deep layers of the text. Background of study In the field of semiotics, narratology and semantics, many studies have been done by researchers in the form of books and articles. Emphasizing the narrative aspect of Greimas's approach, Abbasi has analyzed Persian texts in the books "Samad: The Structure of a Myth" and "Applied Narrative". Sha'iri has done many and extensive studies in this field, among which the books "Semantic of Literature: The Theory and Method of Analyzing Literary Discourse" and several articles such as "From Structuralist Semiotics to Discourse-Semiotics", "A Study of Types of Discourse Systems From the Semiotic Point of View", "Semiotic Analysis of the Process of Recognition in Literary Discourse: A Case Study of Pacheh Khizak written by Sadegh Choubak ".Marc Levy's works have also been the subject of researches with different approaches of literary criticism, among them, we can mention the article by Hassan Zokhtareh and Martine Boyer-Weinmann entitled "A Study of Literary Success in the Contemporary Media Age, Case Study: She and He by Marc Levy". The authors of this article examine the reasons for the success of best-selling novels and successful authors. Ali Abbassi and Mitra Moradi have studied the beginning and end parts of Levy's novel in the article entitled "The Study of the Incipit and the Closure in All Those Things We Never Said by Marc Levy".MethodologyIn this research, using the models presented by Greimas, we intend to investigate the narrativity in the novel "If Only It Were True", by the French author, Marc Levy. By conducting this study, we are looking for an answer to the question "how the narrativity as the organizing principle of the discourse has helped to create meaning and reflect the author's desired values". Our hypothesis in this research is that the text consists of a set of semiotic-semantic elements at the surface and deep structures, between which there are meaningful relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this researche is to study the action pattern, narrative program and semantic square in this novel in order to determine how these elements make the discourse meaningful.ConclusionThe findings of this study show that in this novel we are not facing a simple set of narrative programs, but there is a set of narrative programs that go in parallel to each other, this indicates the complexity of the narrative course of the action subject. By examining the semantic square, we learn that although the actors are temporarily in the position of death, they eventually come out of it and return to life; This reflects the author's positiviste values.
Original Article
Hesam Khalouei; Mohammadsadegh Basiri; Najme Hosseini Sarvari
Abstract
Introduction:The term "Absurd" in dictionaries refers to something irrational, illogical, or nonsensical from a rational or conventional standpoint. However, the title of Absurdist Theater "is not derived from the definition of the term according to the dictionary; rather, it was first used in a book ...
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Introduction:The term "Absurd" in dictionaries refers to something irrational, illogical, or nonsensical from a rational or conventional standpoint. However, the title of Absurdist Theater "is not derived from the definition of the term according to the dictionary; rather, it was first used in a book by Martin Esslin under the same name." (Roberts 18) This word, which in a musical text means lack of coherence, has been translated into Persian as "theater of emptiness" or "absurd theater," but "it is a pure mistake to argue that this theater is inherently absurd and trivial based on the naming, but rather the theater of absurdity seeks to make its audience aware of the unstable and mysterious condition of humanity" (Nik: Ghanimi Halal 90) and the void and meaninglessness of human interaction in societies lacking depth and significance, reminding them of the futility and absurdity of human life with a critical view, and "from this perspective, all plays of Absurdist theater have a humanistic, progressive, and spiritual aspect." (Nik: Roberts 10)The roots and reasons for the emergence of this form of theater must be sought in the events of World War II and the perspectives of intellectuals in the post-war era. The horrors of war had confronted intellectuals with difficult questions about human responsibility and even the continuation of human existence, and the reflection of these questions in theater was the writing and performance of plays whose main theme was anxiety and feelings of guilt. The experiences of the Absurdists were the most significant transformation of theater in the post-war era (Nik: Brackett 198-204) which "employed various theatrical techniques contrary to logical analysis to indirectly reveal the emptiness of contemporary human life." (Stalley Persaud and Bulke 231) This form of theater "represents a transformation in contemporary theater and reflects tendencies that have been evident in the works of complex writers such as Kafka and Joyce since the 1920s and have been associated with some of the leading writers in Europe and the United States such as Samuel Beckett, Ionesco, Genet, etc." (Nik: Esslin 18) "Harold Pinter" is one of the main figures of this theater in England (Nik: The same 255; Brackett 300/3) and "The Birthday Party" is one of his well-known works that has been staged worldwide, including in Iran.Thus, the works of all these writers, including Pinter, have deep roots in a culture and tradition that "in Western culture, constitutes a coherent and consistent intellectual system requiring realism, avoidance of vain hopes, which considers despair, ultimately suicide and escape from the heartbreaking reality as the essence of human emptiness." (Setari 22) But in Iran, the attention of modernist writers to emerging forms of writing, including the writing of Absurdist works, can be seen as a continuation of a trend that began during the Constitutional period and under the influence of Iranians' acquaintance with Western literature. In the field of theater, "the period between 1963 and 1978 can be considered the peak of Western-style theatrical activities. Playwrights, according to their political, social, philosophical, and theatrical tendencies, used a wide range of styles of Western writers - from Brecht to Beckett and Ionesco - as a model and turned away from Aristotelian theatrical conventions to create dramatic texts." (Nik: Bozorgmehr Gofteman 154-158) Among these writers, mention can be made of "Behrouz Forouzan," "Bagher Sahraoordi," and "Abbas Nalbandian," who "were influenced by writers such as Beckett, Pinter, and Harold Pinter and were referred to as pioneers of Absurdist theater." (The same 159) Ghulam Hossein Sa'edi (1935-1985) is the most familiar of these playwrights and a influential writer in contemporary Persian fiction, but "his field of activity is the stage, and it is in this field that innovation is evident." (Dastgheyb 60) His work between the years 1960 and 1978 includes twenty plays, of which "Cobwebs in the First Eaves" and "Honeymoon" (1978) are among the last.In light of the above, the aim of this research is to comparatively analyze Sa'edi's "Honeymoon" and Pinter's "The Birthday Party" in terms of addressing the most important elements of Absurdist theater and analyzing Sa'edi's receptivity to Pinter's work.Background of the Study:Esslin specifically addresses the history and critique of works by writers who follow this approach in his book titled "Theatre of the Absurd." This book is one of the primary sources for this research and for many studies related to Absurdist theater. Other books by non-Iranian and Iranian writers mentioned in the sources of this research also form an important part of its background. Additionally, attention can be drawn to articles that focus on the characteristics of Absurdism in the works of Iranian writers; among these studies, those that have closer relevance to the present research include the following articles: Mohabi and Youssefian Kenari (2011) examine the extensive linguistic transformations in Absurdist plays and their role in the formation process of modern and postmodern literature. They conclude that Absurdist theater has had an impact on the evolution of the novel and in literary language after the 1960s. Rameshki, Shakery, and Faghfouri (2015), in their analysis of Behrouz Forouzan's plays, consider circular plots and open endings, poetic imagery, and the slanted portrayal of characters and their philosophical-belief views as the most important elements of Absurdist theater in his works. Alavi and Mozaffari (2016), while identifying Absurdist elements in "Wood in the Hands of the Wrestler," concluded that Sa'edi, by violating all the structural elements of traditional playwriting, reflects a pessimistic attitude towards existence in his work and puts generational anxieties in front of the deep sorrow of occupation and colonization. Salehi Mazandarani and Gobanchi (2011), in their research, examine how the concept of emptiness is reflected in the plays of the modernist playwright Ghulam Hossein Sa'edi and his direct and indirect reception of this theatrical style, showing that Sa'edi's reception of modern playwrights is much more than that of traditionalists.The subject of the present research is not to prove Sa'edi's influence by playwrights adhering to Absurdist theater, but rather to demonstrate Sa'edi's receptivity to a specific text that has been translated and staged in Iran, and without a doubt, Sa'edi was familiar with it. The results of this research, in addition to providing a more detailed analysis of how Sa'edi, as one of the most important and influential contemporary Iranian writers, was influenced by contemporary literary movements, can be useful in understanding and analyzing how Iranian writers are influenced by the form and structure of contemporary literary movements worldwide and be of interest to scholars in the field of comparative literature.Methodology:The field of comparative studies examines and studies the historical relations of the literature of a nation with the literature of other nations; how the literature of nations is interconnected; what they have borrowed from each other, and what influences they have exerted on each other (cf. Tah Neda 20). Different schools of comparative literature have different approaches to this subject, but "usually the study of the influences and similarities of literary works serves two main purposes in this field. This study focuses on interactions and similarities between two or more literatures, works, or writers of different nations, or on the specific role of some influential figures in transmitting intellectual principles and literary industries" (Yost 64). The French approach to comparative literature, while examining and expressing affinities and similarities between two works, also emphasizes the importance of race, environment, and social conditions, focusing on the relationships and interactions between two literary works, employing empirical and practical methods in comparative research, and limiting these studies to the examination of influence and impact on literary works (cf. Bersler 60-61). There are various connections between literary genres, ranging from the overall national literature to more focused studies on the influence of one writer on one or several other writers; however, these influences occur directly or indirectly, and although the means of transmission are not always apparent, translation and translators play an important role in this regard (cf. Yost 65-66).Translation, as a criterion by which a literary system can measure its indication and semantic formation, has been very important during the literary renewal of Persian literature (cf. Karimi Hakkak 115). The beginning of the acquaintance and influence of Iranian writers and intellectuals with Western literature must be sought in the Qajar period. "The continuous relations between Iran and the West began with the end of the Iran-Russia wars. In the aftermath of Iran's successive defeats by Russia, Abbas Mirza and his prime minister Qa'im Maqam realized the technical and scientific weakness of Iran and pondered solutions. They established factories in Tabriz and other cities and asked Europeans to come to Iran for living. At his command, 'The History of Peter the Great' and 'The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire' were translated into Persian, and Tabriz became the center for the promotion of Western ideas, customs, and traditions. Eventually, the students who were sent abroad for education by his order were the first to engage in the translation of Western literary works and then attempted to write like them" (cf. Behnam 21-23). Alongside Abbas Mirza's efforts to establish schools based on the European model, through his initiative, the first printing presses were established in Iran, and the publication of texts increased unprecedentedly; as a result, the printing of publications became widespread, and the translation of foreign works deeply penetrated all sectors of society (cf. Balaii 12).The translation of dramatic texts and subsequently, the writing of plays in the European sense also began with the establishment of Darolfonoun and the translation of Molière's plays, and some translators, due to their personal taste and preference, added Iranian color and flair to them; however, the oldest plays written in imitation of Europeans are the works of Akhundzadeh, which Mirza Jafar Gorgani translated from Azerbaijani into Persian (cf. Arianpour 1/336-342). With the beginning of the constitutionalist movements, especially after the end of the Minor Tyranny and the establishment of the constitutional period, the art of theater gained the attention of intellectuals and reformists, and after journalism, it became their second occupation; an independent magazine called "Theater" was published, the first theatrical groups were formed, and plays were staged in Tehran and other cities (cf. Malekpoor 2/28). Yet, all these efforts must characterize the reign of Reza Shah as the period of "the beginning of playwriting seriously and not professionally. In this period, we are once again faced with a wave of works written by literary figures" (cf. Malekpoor 101). Despite this, unlike the Qajar period, playwriting in this period was mostly influenced by the structure rather than the content of translated Western works, such as plays by Shakespeare, Schiller, Dumas, etc. (cf. Bozorgmehr Tathir 161-168).During the reign of Pahlavi II, in terms of the number of theaters, the diversity and prosperity of stage performances, the scientific approach to performance and theater education, and the establishment of the foundation of the national theater of Iran, considerable attention was paid. In this period, a new season began in the process of renewal, and Westernization took on a new form. Intellectuals gathered in Istanbul cafes, and the works of Sartre, Kafka, Camus, and Steinbeck were translated by them. Between the years 1340 to 1357, the magazine Sokhan became a forum for Western-oriented intellectuals (cf. Homaan 198-212), and many translations of Western authors' works were published in this magazine and other literary journals. The establishment of translation and book publishing companies and the activities of institutions such as the Franklin Foundation provided the opportunity for the publication of more translated works, including classics of world literature such as the works of Shakespeare, Chekhov, Molière, and others, as well as the works of contemporary American and European playwrights such as Williams, Miller, Ibsen, etc., became available to the audience. In addition, Iranian writers also wrote and published more plays, but there was no organized effort in the field of independent playwriting apart from Western thought in their works. One of these works is the play "Leilaj-ha" by Gholamhossein Sa'edi, which was published in the 8th issue of the 8th volume of Sokhan magazine in 1356 (cf. Bozorgmehr Discourse 355-357).The establishment of the Dramatic Arts Office in 1357 and then the Radio and Television Faculty and the Faculty of Dramatic Arts in 1362 had a significant impact on the translation of most Western theatrical works; because the professors of these two faculties were educated in the West, and the content of the courses was also in accordance with Western theater schools. Therefore, between the years 1365 to 1377, theatrical activities reached their peak in the Western style, and simultaneously with the increase in theaters in the capital and other cities, translators with various motivations (cf. Ibid 381-391) engaged in translating the works of foreign playwrights, including prominent playwrights of meaningful theater. The translation of works and the performance of plays by authors such as Beckett, Camus, UNESCO, and Albee, as well as insightful and critical writings about the plays of these authors, led to Iranian writers' familiarity with these works and the principles of meaningful theater.Pinter is also among the playwrights whose works were translated and performed during this period. "The Caretaker" is his first work that was translated into Persian in 1347 and staged a year later. "The Dumb Waiter" in 1348, "The Birthday Party" in 1349, "The Collection" in two performances in 1350 and 1356, and "The Elevator" in 1356 are other works of Pinter that have been translated (cf. Bozorgmehr Discourse 198-311). It was during the period of their continuous activity that Sa'edi served as a writer, translator, and literary critic. The simultaneous publication of Sa'edi's writings in widely-read literary magazines of the time, such as Arash and Sokhan, also confirms Sa'edi's deep acquaintance with meaningful theater. But since "comparative literature uses comparison as the main tool and not as the goal" (cf. Salamin Parvar 10), French researchers have focused on the impact of the work in their studies (cf. Aloush cited in Pirani 167). Therefore, comparing two works structurally is essential for researchers in this field.Conclusion:The subject of this research is the analysis and comparison of two plays, "Jashn-e Tavalod" and "Mah-e Asal," using the principles of French comparative literature. The results of this study indicate that Sa'edi was familiar with the elements of meaningful theater and the works of Pinter. The atmosphere of both plays is similar, and they both disregard classical narrative conventions. Both works begin with scenes portraying futile and inconclusive conversations and the display of calmness and repetitive routines resulting from daily life, confined to a constrained stage; however, Pinter's stage, although initially simpler and melancholic, evokes a warm and secure refuge that preserves the characters from chaos. On the other hand, Sa'edi's stage, while initially presenting a brighter image of a sanctuary, gradually turns into a confined and disturbing place, leaving the characters no way out. In both plays, the use of dialogue characterized by confusion, disorder, repetition, and length is the most significant theatrical element and the only event on the verge of occurrence. The theatrical characteristic of dialogues, fragmented and unstable identities of the characters, in coordination with the main theme of the story—portraying the turmoil and chaos of the world and the loneliness and distress of individuals trapped in this world—by disrupting the linear flow of time and emphasizing the tediousness of time, once again highlights the everyday boredom and futility of life.In creating the atmosphere of the play and portraying the characters, processing the space and time of the performance, the synchronous method of Pinter, the characterization of space and place, and the alignment of dialogues and characters with analyses and interpretations, it became clear that Sa'edi was directly influenced by Pinter's play in the stylistic innovations applied in "Mah-e Asal." He structured the narrative format of the play, including the form of the performance, the plot, the setting, the characterization, the language, and the timing of the performance, based on Pinter's innovations; however, sometimes he used details contrary to Pinter's style. With these interpretations, we come to the important conclusion that "Mah-e Asal" was created under the influence of Pinter's style and thought. Following the theatrical style and borrowing elements of "confusion" and "anxiety" from "Jashn-e Tavalod," Sa'edi, a writer whose works are characterized by "fear" and "anxiety," has created a notable and distinctive work among Iranian plays.
Original Article
Faranak Hashemi
Abstract
IntroductionTranslation of texts with native and cultural content has always been a big challenge for translators. It seems that we are facing two problems: first, the translator‘s correct understanding of the original text, and second, the correct and comprehensible translation of native and cultural ...
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IntroductionTranslation of texts with native and cultural content has always been a big challenge for translators. It seems that we are facing two problems: first, the translator‘s correct understanding of the original text, and second, the correct and comprehensible translation of native and cultural elements. When dealing with literature for children and young adults, other subtleties must be considered, including vocabulary, language structure and style, limited level of social and cultural experience of the young audience and many other factors. These features and theories related to their structures and translation methods are discussed in this article from the perspective of theorists of the translation of children's and young adults’ literary works, including the theories of Reiss (1971, 1982), Oittinen (2000), Puurtinen (1995-2006) , Shavit (2006), Venuti (1995), Klingberg (1986), Neumann (1979) and others.Afterwards, in the review and comparison section of the text and translation criticism, two examples of the translations of Hoshang Moradi Kermani's stories into German language, namely "Khumre" and "Chakmeh" are examined based on the theories and elements related to the translation of children's and young adults’ literature. The translation of both these stories was carried out by Ms. Mehrafaq Gallenbacher and the final text was edited by Ms. Renate Welsch, an Austrian writer and translator of children's and youth literature.In the topics of translation studies, the theories and frameworks of translation of children's and young adults’ books have been less discussed. Here, some of the most important and outstanding theories will be introduced and examined, then these structures will be examined in the German translation of the two mentioned stories.In the discussion of translating children's and young adults’ literature, similar to adult literature, we are faced with the issue of translating cultural elements and sometimes the untranslatability of phrases and terms, and in this article, the translator's approach and the type of solutions they used for this problem will be briefly examined.The main questions that are raised in this review are as follows:Has the translator acted correctly and successfully in understanding the meaning of the Persian text and transferring it into German?Is the translation text-centered or has the translator brought it closer to the culture of the target language?What methods and solutions did the translator use to achieve his goal?Are the German translations of the two stories “Khomreh” and “Chakmeh” at the level of youth literature, along with the literary value of the two works, successful examples of transferring traditional and cultural characteristics?To achieve the desired results, parts of both texts that have a special linguistic and cultural structure will be selected and their translation analyzed based on the theories of translation of children's and young adults’ books. In the comparison section of the Persian text and the German translation, the author has literally translated the examples given from the German language into Persian and as close as possible to the German translation in order to clarify the explanations. MethodIn the theoretical part, a number of definitions given by theorists of children's literature are introduced and analyzed, including definitions by Katarina Rice (1971 and 1982), Riita Ovitinen (2000), Portinen (1995 and 2006), Shavit (1991 and 2006). , Klingberg (1986), Venotti (1995) and Neumann (1979). In short, it can be concluded that the structure of the translation of texts for children and teenagers is different from the translation of adult texts. In this process, one should have the vocabulary, lived experience and cultural and social development of the child or teenager, the level of familiarity with foreign cultures, specifically the culture related to the book in question, and other cases. Among the strategies that translators can use are: adaptation, rewriting the text, localization (names, cultural values, etc.), using explanations in the text to simplify the understanding of the content for the child or teenage audience.In the review and critique chapter, the German translation of "Khomreh" and "Chakmeh" was examined based on the method of translation, language structure, the translator's strategies in facing the cultural and native elements, which are very prominent in Moradi Kermani's stories, and the removal of linguistic and cultural barriers.Both texts were translated by Mehrafaq Gallenbacher and edited by Austrian author and translator Renate Welch. Mrs. Welch, the editor of the translated text of "Khomreh" in German, wrote a short introduction titled "Water is Life" for the story, in which she points out the importance of water and the climatic and cultural differences in access and use of water. She also refers to the educational aspect of the subject and reminds its importance and thus prepares the reader's mind to some extent with the conditions mentioned in the story.ResultsIn these two stories, the translator uses long conversations, many descriptions and repetitions common in Persian speech, terms such as types of oaths that belong to a certain cultural context, special names (of places and persons) etc. Also, the cultural elements that cannot be removed, including types of sweets, celebrations and traditions, etc. Most of the proper names have remained the same and have not been replaced. To clear the ambiguity of important cultural elements, brief explanations are given in the footnote. The texts, especially "Khomreh", are shortened and repetitions and description of scenes in different parts have been removed. In a few cases, there are mistakes in the translation, including the translation of the word "Kadkhoda", which has an alternative in the German language, and considering that the whole story happens in a village, there is no doubt about the place and therefore using the equivalent to "mayor" in the German translation is a mistake.On the other hand, in the translation of "Chakmeh", and especially in its appearance and printing, eastern cultural elements are clearly visible. In the paintings of the book, a completely traditional and oriental space is depicted, and even some Persian words are given at the end of the book as examples and for practicing Persian vocabulary.On the one hand, structures that seemed to have made the story difficult for the German-speaking audience, have been removed and replaced with familiar structures or words in the target language environment, for example, replacing “Yazdi cake” with “Shortbread biscuits” (certainly a better option could be found in the German language and culture), and on the other hand, cultural elements are explained in some way or highlighted with an image.Discussion and conclusionDrawing from the theories of translating literature for children and young adults, translators in this domain encounter challenges distinct from those faced by translators of adult works. On one hand, they face issues that may pose greater difficulty in finding viable solutions. This is attributed to the fact that the younger audience possesses a more limited vocabulary concerning reading and comprehending content, has a less developed understanding of language structures, and lacks the extensive social and cultural experiences compared to adults. On the other hand, theorists and professional translators specializing in children's literature have leveraged their insights to propose solutions and recommendations for fellow translators. These range from simplifying the language and the text to changes in concepts and cultural content adapting, and rewriting.Many theorists have observed a fundamental change in content, structure, goals and process of intellectual development of children and young adults, which is particularly noticeable in recent decades, that also affects the structures and methods of translations. Each of these definitions and associated theories warrants a more profound and detailed exploration.The German translations of the two stories "Khomreh" and "Chakmeh" by Hoshang Moradi Kermani, which were examined and analyzed as an example, are somewhat consistent with the above mentioned theories. The editor of the German version of "Khomreh" wrote a short introduction for it in which he mentions water and its importance, and also the different views and positions in different societies and cultures regarding this vital element. The German text of "Khomreh" has been somewhat shortened and some repetitions, conversations and descriptions have been removed or abbreviated. The naming of people and the introduction of characters in the story are different from the original text. The content order of the story is not fully respected and the translator has moved and/or integrated some scenes. The translator gave a brief explanation for a number of culturally charged words in the footnote, examples of which were mentioned in the translation analysis. Examining the German translation of the text "Chakmeh" yielded similar results. However, due to the shorter text of the story and its simpler language, there were fewer text changes compared to "Chakmeh". In addition, the translator of both texts was the same person, and as a result, it seems that a similar method and style was used in the translation of both texts. The content analysis of the structure and criticism of the above mentioned translations has many details, and considering the global status of Hoshang Moradi Kermani as an author of works for children and young adults, a more detailed examination of these two works with regard to various theories in translation studies will yield more interesting results.
Original Article
Azita Zamani; Zahra Bordbari; Javad Yaghoobi Derabi
Abstract
IntroductionThe present research examines Greenblatt's theories on the improvisation of power and tyranny in Shakespeare's play Richard III, considering Hayles and Slethaug's ideas of chaos theory. The focus is on the nonviolent psychological control achieved through empathy using displacement and absorption. ...
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IntroductionThe present research examines Greenblatt's theories on the improvisation of power and tyranny in Shakespeare's play Richard III, considering Hayles and Slethaug's ideas of chaos theory. The focus is on the nonviolent psychological control achieved through empathy using displacement and absorption. The study explores how chaos is manipulated to establish a new order and analyzes how the tyrants, specifically Richard III, use it to employ oppressive strategies to dominate others. The consequences of disrupting the established order are also explored, as Richard III tries unsuccessfully to establish control through tyranny.Background of StudyScholars have analyzed Shakespeare's historical plays, adding depth to this essay. Edward Lorenz's chaos theory, explored by Catherine Hayles and Gordon Slethaug, provides an interdisciplinary viewpoint. Stephen Greenblatt's article "The Improvisation of Power" and his book Tyranny (Shakespeare and Politics) explore the connections between English autocracy and modern tyranny like Trumpism in Shakespeare's works. Slethaug 's Beautiful Chaos and Hayles' Chaos Bound explore contemporary American fiction and the relationship between literature, theory, and chaos science.Methodology In Daniel Lerner's work "Passing from Traditional Society: Modernization of the Middle East," the development of empathy is discussed as a psychological skill in western societies, attributed to migration caused by war and famine. Stephen Greenblatt expands on this concept in his idea of power improvisation, which highlights the destructive potential of empathy. The improvisation of power involves pursuing a goal while adapting tactics based on the current situation, psychologically dominating the target through displacement and absorption. Greenblatt's work Tyrant (Shakespeare and Politics) explores the relationship between Shakespeare's plays and the political climate of Renaissance England, focusing on the rise and fall of tyrants and the role of the people. The research also explores chaos theory, which uncovers hidden patterns in seemingly random sequences, applicable in both scientific and literary contexts.ConclusionThe essay delves into the consequences of the improvisation of power and tyranny on hierarchical relationships and political equations, utilizing the theories proposed by Stephen Greenblatt. It analyzes the manner in which the improvisation of power can reorganize and reconstruct identities in Shakespeare's historical plays, emphasizing the significance of psychological dynamics and empathy. Shakespeare's authentic depiction of characters captivates readers, challenging the established historical narratives through the improvisation of power at another level. The essay also examines the impact of Catholic religious fundamentalism during the Middle Ages, acknowledging its role in the improvisation of power. The presence of dual centers of power creates a psychological duality within the characters. By harnessing chaos to their advantage, power improvisation has the potential to disrupt governmental systems and manipulate existing orders.
Original Article
Ziba Roshanzamir; Leila Baradaran Jamili; Bahman Zarrinjooee
Abstract
Introduction: This research aims to analyze Virginia Woolf (1882-1942)’s Orlando: A Biography (1928) based on environmental narrative, egalitarian philosophy and ecosophy to criticize anthropocentrism. The theoretical framework is mainly based on Arne Naess’s philosophies of egalitarianism ...
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Introduction: This research aims to analyze Virginia Woolf (1882-1942)’s Orlando: A Biography (1928) based on environmental narrative, egalitarian philosophy and ecosophy to criticize anthropocentrism. The theoretical framework is mainly based on Arne Naess’s philosophies of egalitarianism and ecosophy which show how Woolf, through environmental narratives, clarifies the significance of nature and environment. Naess believes that a systematic discipline in terms of philosophical view is essential to develop interconnectedness between humans and nature or ecological system. He assumes that self-realization is linked with ecological awareness, then knowing ecology or ecologism leads to ecosophy. In the novel, Orlando, as the main character, reaches a kind of ecological self-recognition and egalitarian tendency. When she is among gypsies, she is drawn to the eyecatching beauty of nature and she knows that how humans can be attached to nature without pay attention to their anthropocentric interest. The article finally indicates that how all living beings, including humans are respectful and humans are not unique species and must not spoil lands and nature to satisfy their own desires. Background of the Study: This study focuses on Orlando: A Biography and it is framed to investigate the novel by illustrating the environmental narrative through egalitarian philosophy and ecosophy. It also demonstrates that how humans seek the value of life, and their happiness and satisfaction. Virginia Woolf, as a British novelist, in Orlando ponders the various effects of time, from fifteenth century to the turn of the nineteenth century, on nature and environment. Woolf’s fictional character is subjectively a symbol of highlighting the egalitarian culture via environmental narratives. Woolf has utilized the natural world to portray the significance of its trouble created by humans. Therefore, she puts a lot of stress on nature, environment, and non-humans in her works. She can be regarded as a philosopher who has developed egalitarian culture designating respect for all the living beings and she struggles to show the interaction between humans and the earth that should be modified in a better way.Methodology: The present study applies the egalitarian philosophy and ecosophy which are categorized in the theory of ecocriticism. Ecocriticism is an interdisciplinary study that concentrates on common grounds, relationships and affiliations exit between two different fields of study: ecology and literature. Arne Naess who is an eco-philosopher and ecocritic by turning to ecocriticism announces that the relationships between humans and nature can be possible by increasing ecological wisdom and awareness. Naess relies on biospherical egalitarianism that is to consider the environment as an entity that has its right to be safe. He believes that the rights of the environment are as important as human rights. The species’ equality is proposed by Naess. He comes to conclusions that all living beings must live on the planet earth without spoiling one another’s benefits and rights. As a result, this study illustrates how Naess as an ecocritic attempts to modify the interaction of humans, nature, and environment.Conclusion: Orlando is Woolf’s attempt to reveal how nature and environment have the same rights to be kept alive. Woolf uses environmental narrative to show the right place of humans in nature. She criticizes anthropocentrism and challenges the anthropocentric views through her narrative. She thinks that people need the ecological awareness to reach an egalitarian perspective not to hurt nature and environment any longer.
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